migration watch

“he years 1991 – 2006 there was a net movement of some 2.3 million people to the UK - only 8% of which came from the new East European members of the EU”1
(SEE PRINTED GRAPH)
Migrationwatch UK, “Outline of the Problem”MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/0utline_of_the_Problem_010107.pdf
claims that immigration is now 15 times the scale of asylum and that 76% of the population favour caps on immigration.2 states that this is an “unprecedented scale” and that the net migration for 2005 was “292,000”.3
claims that 50,000 illegal immigrants are detected every year but no one knows how many will come in.4 claims to England being twice as crowded as Germany and four times as crowded as Paris.5 points to a 33% increase in the demand for visas, reaching 2.5 million a year.6
Against claims that immigrants bring economic growth affirms (1) that the benefit they bring is basically proportional to the increase in population they provoke. (2) They will not solve the pensions problem, as they themselves will become old (3) drive wages down and encourage British citizens to remain on benefits.7
Problems: (1) resentment amongst native population, shared by majority in ethnic minorities (2) fear that Britain is losing its distinct culture (3) formation of parallel communities with little loyalty to Britain, often at odds with one another, influenced by overseas satellite television (4) Pressure on housing and services (5) changing in the configuration of cities, especially London, claims that in the last decade 600,000 Londoners have left to be replaced by 700,000 immigrants (6) problem of immigration.8
Defends (1) limit on immigration so that those coming in balance those leaving (2) “explicit nation building” to integrate minorities. 9
Migrationwatch UK, “An Overview of UK Migration” MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/Overview.pdf [Accessed 3 October 2008]
claims that until the 1950s there had been no major immigration into the UK, except from Ireland.10
1996 settlement figure 61,000 2005 figure 179,000.11
claims that the work permit system has become a major avenue for immigration.12
on illegal immigration 2001 Government estimate of between 310,000-570,000 centred on 430,000 with MWUK updating this to 515,000-870,000 centred on 670,000 estimating for asylum seekers whose claims have been rejected.13
“Net migration reached a record high of 222,000 in 2004 before falling slightly to 185,000 in 2005. During the 60’s and 70’s emigration generally exceeded immigration and in the 80’s and early 90’s net immigration was generally below 50,000 people a year. Such very high migration into Britain is therefore a new phenomenon. Net non-EU migration to the UK has been rapidly increasing from 44,000 in 1992. In 2004 it reached a new record high level of 268,000. In 2005 it fell to 203,000 reflecting the fact that ten new countries had acceded to the EU in May 2004. There has been a steady net outflow of British citizens during this period - reaching a record high of 120,000 in 2004 before falling slightly to 107,000 in 2005. Net flows of EU citizens into the UK have been modest until recently. The maximum net inflow of citizens of the 15 continental European countries which were EU members before May 2004, in the period 1995 –2004, was 24,000 in 1998 and the maximum net outflow was 35,000 in 2002. This changed with the accession of the 10 countries to the EU in May 2004. The international migration statistics show that a net 49,000 and 65,000 people migrated from the accession countries in 2004 and 2005 respectively bringing total net migration from the EU up to 74,000 and 89,000 in these years. However, net migration from the accession countries only accounts for about 1 in 5 of net foreign immigration in total.”14
claims that the argument that immigrants do the jobs Brits do not want results in the creation of an underclass.15
denies, compared to other countries in Europe, that Britain has a demographic problem.16
“Over half of migrants live in London and the South East and more than 75% of new
migrants are settling there.”17
29% of the population of London consists of ethnic minorities.18
Migrationwatch UK, Balanced Migration, (Deddington: Migrationwatch UK, 2008)
Deny that the influx of immigrants is due to globalization but attribute it to government policies.19

1Migrationwatch UK, “2.3 million immigrants come to UK in 16 years” MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pressreleases/pressreleases.asp?dt=02-June-2008 [Accessed 3 October 2008]
2Migrationwatch UK, “Outline of the Problem”MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/0utline_of_the_Problem_010107.pdf, 1.
3Migrationwatch UK, “Outline of the Problem”MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/0utline_of_the_Problem_010107.pdf, 1.
4Migrationwatch UK, “Outline of the Problem”MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/0utline_of_the_Problem_010107.pdf, 1.
5Migrationwatch UK, “Outline of the Problem”MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/0utline_of_the_Problem_010107.pdf, 1.
6Migrationwatch UK, “Outline of the Problem”MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/0utline_of_the_Problem_010107.pdf, 2.
7Migrationwatch UK, “Outline of the Problem”MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/0utline_of_the_Problem_010107.pdf, 2.
8Migrationwatch UK, “Outline of the Problem”MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/0utline_of_the_Problem_010107.pdf, 2.
9Migrationwatch UK, “Outline of the Problem”MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/0utline_of_the_Problem_010107.pdf, 3.
10Migrationwatch UK, “An Overview of UK Migration” MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/Overview.pdf [Accessed 3 October 2008] 1.
11Migrationwatch UK, “An Overview of UK Migration” MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/Overview.pdf [Accessed 3 October 2008] 1.
12Migrationwatch UK, “An Overview of UK Migration” MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/Overview.pdf [Accessed 3 October 2008] 1.
13Migrationwatch UK, “An Overview of UK Migration” MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/Overview.pdf [Accessed 3 October 2008] 3.
14Migrationwatch UK, “An Overview of UK Migration” MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/Overview.pdf [Accessed 3 October 2008] 3.
15Migrationwatch UK, “An Overview of UK Migration” MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/Overview.pdf [Accessed 3 October 2008] 4.
16Migrationwatch UK, “An Overview of UK Migration” MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/Overview.pdf [Accessed 3 October 2008] 4.
17Migrationwatch UK, “An Overview of UK Migration” MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/Overview.pdf [Accessed 3 October 2008] 4.
18Migrationwatch UK, “An Overview of UK Migration” MWUK Homepage available online at http://migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/Overview.pdf [Accessed 3 October 2008] 5.

Migration Watch

First source of data is the Office of National Statistics International Migration Estimates. This is based on the International Passenger Survey which is a small voluntary sample of migration. Main weaknesses, (1) does not include land entry and smaller airports (2) does not include asylum seekers (3) is based on the declared intention of passengers which is not a clear guide. ONS seeks to correct some of these limitations. 2005 Estimate, net international migration of 185,000.79
Second source is the Settlement Data enumerating those granted indefinite leave to remain.80 Third source of data is the census.81
international migration to places where there are already existing ethnic minorities.82 London preferred area with 750,000 coming between 1993-2002.83 Balanced by the departure of white residents, especially young couples with children; increase in commuting.84 Higher the presence of ethnic minorities, higher the departure of white population.85 Brent white population declined from 136,600 in 1991 to 122,400 in 2001.86 Claims that this process leads to the separation of the white population from the ethnic minorities, and makes the integration of immigrants more difficult.87
2003 18.6% of births to mothers not from UK compared to 12.1% in 1993.88 (reached near 20% in 2004)89Outer London 41%; Brent 65% Greater London 47%90 2004: Births to foreign-born mothers are concentrated in particular areas. In Greater London as a whole the percentage is 49% (Inner London 57%, Outer London 43%) and the following London boroughs have 60% or more of births to foreign-born mothers:
Brent 68%
Camden 61%
Haringey 60%
Kensington and Chelsea 67%
Newham 71%
Tower Hamlets 69%91
MWUK claim that their stance is that immigration policy should reflect UK needs contra IPPR “apparent stance” that social policy should adapt to immigration trends.92
proposes tighter rules to discourage intercontinental marriage.93
“It is relevant to the UK that those granted amnesty in the EU will eventually obtain
documents that will permit them to travel to Britain. In Spain, anyone who has held a
resident permit for ten years can apply for Spanish nationality; for nationals of Latin
American countries and the Philippines, the qualifying period is only two years.”94

“It was also claimed that £4.7 billion would be “saved” by not undertaking their
forced removal. Nobody is suggesting such a course. One might just as well suggest
that we can “save” £100 billion by not sending a man to the moon!”95


Rather than removal suggest (1) stricter control on entry (2) stricter control on labour market (3) use of ID cards to deter from use of NHS and granting children access to school. (does not deal with human rights issue...nor the costs of these stricter controls.)96

79Migrationwatch UK, “The Measurement of Migration” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/MigrationTrends/9_1_Measuring_immigration.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 1–3.
80Migrationwatch UK, “The Measurement of Migration” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/MigrationTrends/9_1_Measuring_immigration.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 3–4.
81Migrationwatch UK, “The Measurement of Migration” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/MigrationTrends/9_1_Measuring_immigration.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 4.
82Migrationwatch UK, “The Effect of Immigration on the Regions” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/MigrationTrends/9_10_Internal_migration.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 3.
83Migrationwatch UK, “The Effect of Immigration on the Regions” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/MigrationTrends/9_10_Internal_migration.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 3.
84Migrationwatch UK, “The Effect of Immigration on the Regions” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/MigrationTrends/9_10_Internal_migration.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 4.
85Migrationwatch UK, “The Effect of Immigration on the Regions” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/MigrationTrends/9_10_Internal_migration.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 5.
86Migrationwatch UK, “The Effect of Immigration on the Regions” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/MigrationTrends/9_10_Internal_migration.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 5.
87Migrationwatch UK, “The Effect of Immigration on the Regions” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/MigrationTrends/9_10_Internal_migration.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 7.
88Migrationwatch UK, “The Social Impact of Immigration” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/MigrationTrends/9_11_Social_Impact_of_Immigration.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 1.
89Migrationwatch UK, “The Effect of Immigration on the Integration of Communities in Britain” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/MigrationTrends/9_19_effect_of_immigration_on_integration.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 1.
90Migrationwatch UK, “The Social Impact of Immigration” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/MigrationTrends/9_11_Social_Impact_of_Immigration.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 3.
91Migrationwatch UK, “The Effect of Immigration on the Integration of Communities in Britain” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/MigrationTrends/9_19_effect_of_immigration_on_integration.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 3.
92Migrationwatch UK, “IPPR Report- Beyond Black and White” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/MigrationTrends/9_18_IPPR_report.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 3.
93Migrationwatch UK, “The Effect of Immigration on the Integration of Communities in Britain” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/MigrationTrends/9_19_effect_of_immigration_on_integration.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 5.
94Migrationwatch UK, “An Amnesty for Illegal Immigrants?” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/Other/10_15_Amnestyforillegals.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 4.
95Migrationwatch UK, “An Amnesty for Illegal Immigrants?” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/Other/10_15_Amnestyforillegals.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 5.
96Migrationwatch UK, “An Amnesty for Illegal Immigrants?” MWUK Homepage available online at http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/pdfs/Other/10_15_Amnestyforillegals.pdf [Accessed October 7 2008] 6.

Solomos

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points to how an intrinsic connection has developed between immigration and black immigration and how “successive governments have attempted to regulate and eventually halt the arrival of black immigrants through immigration legislation and other means.”¹

immediately after the second World War most migration to Britain was temporal from Europe encouraged by government.² “even at this early stage black migration and settlement was perceived differently from European migration. Privately the government was considering the most desirable method of discouraging or preventing the arrival of 'coloured' British citizens from the colonies.”³ points to the fact that they had the legal right to enter Britain, confirmed in the British Nationality Act of 1948.⁴

“Throughout the period [1950s] an increasingly racialised debate on immigration took place, focusing on the supposed social problems of having too many black immigrants and the question of how they could be stopped from entering.”⁵

“from 1948 to 1962 the state was involved in a complex political and ideological racialisation of immigrantion policy.”⁶ “By 1952 Labour and Conservative governments had instituted a number of convert and sometimes illegal administrative measures to discourage black immigration.”⁷ “before and after the riots [1958] the question of control was integrated into the policy agenda.”⁸ sees this as the period in which the argument for the need of state intervention to slow down black immigration and the “social problems” it caused gained force.⁹

“the debates on black immigration during the 1950s reinforced a racialised construction of Britishness that excluded or included people on the ground of race, defined by colour”¹⁰

despite 1958 riots in Nottingham and Notting Hill being attacks on blacks they nonetheless used as examples of the dangers of “unrestricted immigration”.¹¹

racialisation of immigration done through a “coded language”¹²

rather than seeing the state as responding either to pressure from public opinion or “the economic interests of the capitalist class” defends that the state had an active role in shaping the racialisation of the immigration debate.¹³

interprets the 1962 Commonwealth Immigrans act as designed to target black immigration.¹⁴ points to the fact that the Labour Party did not sustain its opposition to the act and when in power produced an even stricter “white paper on immigration” which is seen as the convergance of Conservative and Labour views on the subject.¹⁵

Significant episodes 1) victory of an anti-Immigration Conservative candidate Peter Griffiths, in Smethwick in 1964.¹⁶ 2) the arrival of East African Asians from Kenya and Uganda and the Labour 1968 Act deliberately target at them.¹⁷ Powell –significant for the defence of compulsory repatriation and construction of the image of “white Britains becoming 'strangers' in their 'own country'¹⁸

1J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 48.

2J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 49–51.

3J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 51.

4J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 51.

5J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 52.

6J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 52.

7J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 52–53.

8J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 53.

9J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 53.

10J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 54.

11J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 54.

12J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 56.

13J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 56–57.

14J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 57–59.

15J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 59.

16J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 59–60.

17J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 60–61.

18J Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, Third Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan 2003, 61.

Spencer

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S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95.

Quotes Roy Hattersley “Without integration, limitation is inexcusable; without limitation, integration is impossible.”¹

“The bi-partisan consensus that firm immigration control is the prerequisite of good race relations rests on the assumption that the hostility which some white people feel towards black and Asian people would be exacerbated if they believed that their entry into the country was not effectively controlled.”²

points to the way in which successive governments have failed to convince public opinion that immigration is under control, and the generally negative, and exaggerated, opinions regarding immigration in the general public.³

“Although it has become less socially acceptable to express negative views about black and Asian people within the United Kingdom, fewer inhibitions constrain expressions of such views about immigrants, foreigners, and, in recent years, refugees.”⁴

points to scholars (Jim Rose & Shamit Saggar) who suggest that politicians were responsible for fostering anti-immigration feeling with their emphasis on legislation.⁵

(writing in 1998) “Public fears that immigration is out of control are thus not justified. It has become increasingly difficult to enter the United Kingdom and numbers have fallen significantly over the last twenty years”.⁶

“the message sent to the public by immigration policy, that particular kinds of foreigners would not be welcome members of British society is in direct contradiction to the message relayed by government race relations policy- that existing members of minority communities in Britain should be accepted as equal members of society.”⁷ Quotes Roy Hattersley “if we cannot afford to let them in, those of them who are here already must be doing harm.”⁸

points to the way in which Immigration controls were targeted against Black and Asian immigrants.⁹ “In order to protect that legislation from challenge under the race discrimination legislation, immigrant law and its enforcement were and remain exempt from its provisions.”¹⁰

“It has been in the presentation of immigration policy that politicians have reinforced so forcefully the message that particular kinds of foreigners are unwelcome in the United Kingdom.”¹¹

points to the fact that after Thatcher's claim in 1978 that British people were afraid of being swamped by people from alien cultures a poll indicated that the number of people who considered immigration an urgent issue rose from 9% to 21%.¹²

“Once government decides to appease rather than assuage public concern, new measures have to be proposed to show that something is being done. Loopholes are identified, rule changes proposed, appeal rights abolished, time-limits shortened, defences removed.”¹³

“Post-war immigration to Britain has, it appears, contributed to a national identity crisis. Having lost its imperial, military, economic and sporting prowess, Britain is no longer confident of its role and cultural identity.” results in fear of the arrival of those with different customs.¹⁴ “There has been a clear resistance to updating Britain's self-image to accommodate the multicultural reality of British society and its history.”¹⁵

Against an open door policy points to 1) reality of strong fears of immigration 2) “Immigrants who settle in the United Kingdom must be entitled to the same civil, political, social and economic rights and benefits as other residents. To suggest otherwise would be to concede a future two-tier society of those who really belong and those who do not. Employment is not available to all who need it and social and economic rights...are expensive.”¹⁶

points to the Canadian declaration which is defined mainly in terms of positive goals and contrasts it with the “defensive, largely negative, tone of the United Kingdom's aims”¹⁷

“Let us reject, once and for all, the message of tolerance. Tolerance is what we feel for those whom we disapporve of, or dislike, but nevertheless feel obliged to be civil to.”¹⁸

1S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 74.

2S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 74.

3S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 75.

4S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 75.

5S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 75.

6S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 77.

7S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 77.

8S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 77.

9S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 77–80.

10S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 78.

11S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 80.

12S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 80.

13S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 80.

14S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 83.

15S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 83.

16S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 84.

17S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 85.

18S Spencer, “The Impact of Immigration Policy on Race Relations” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 74–95, 90.

Lester

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points to the rise of the ethnic minority population in the post WW2 period, especially in the 1950s and the need in the 1960s to adjust to the reality of a multiracial society.¹

“Britain's newcomers have rarely failed to make a positive contribution out of proportion to their numbers, in founding and rejuvenating business firms, in contributing to our national welfare and prosperity, and in enriching our universities and cultural centres.”²

points to the need to rethink the concept of Britishness in the light of ethnic minorities.³

Immigration measures, and Parliamentary and media response, weaken the endeavours of the CRE to end racial discrimination.⁴

1A Lester, “From Legislation to Integration: Twenty Years of the Race Relations Act” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 22–35, 23.

2A Lester, “From Legislation to Integration: Twenty Years of the Race Relations Act” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 22–35, 24.

3A Lester, “From Legislation to Integration: Twenty Years of the Race Relations Act” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 22–35, 28.

4A Lester, “From Legislation to Integration: Twenty Years of the Race Relations Act” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 22–35, 28.

Parekh

Society needs to balance the need of cohesion and a sense of belonging with the right of minority groups to preserve their way of life.¹

Proceduralist view of integration: state as culturally neutral, minorities left free to choose up to which point they wish to assimilate the majority culture.²

Assimilationist model: need for a “common national culture” “the state has both a right and a duty to ensure that its cultural minorities assimilate or merge into the prevailing national culture.”³ cultural assimilation--> biological assimilation through intermarriage--> nationalist assimilation.⁴

Bifurcationist/liberal model of integration: focuses on public and private divide, unity in the public realm, diversity allowed in the private. Sharing of a “common political culture.”⁵

Pluralist model: need for a realisation of the multicultural nature of society, state has the role to promote the culture of ethnic minority groups.⁶

Millet model state has no independent status but is rather a “union of communities, a bare framework within which they should be free to pursue their traditional ways of life and engage in necessary social, political and economic interactions.”⁷ state should respect the individuality of the communities and work to preserve them.⁸

“The five models also entail different conceptions of citizenship. In the proceduralist model citizenship is purely formal in nature and consists of certain rights and obligations. In the assimilationist model it is grounded in the national culture and requires the citizen to share it as a necessary precondition of full membership of the political community. In the bifurcationist model the citizen is committed to sharing the political culture of the community. In the pluralist model citizenship has a plural cultural basis, and citizens bring their diverse cultures to the public realm and enjoy a culturally mediated membership of the political community. The millet model privileges communal membership and has no, or only a highly attenuated, notion of citizenship.”⁹

claims that the proceduralist model is logically incoherent, for any concept of a state must be based on certain (cultural) values, and thus it is impossible for the state to be culturally neutral.¹⁰

Assimilation (1) not clear what one is to assimilate into (2) rarely works in practice (3) impossible for liberal societies as it breaks the principle of equal respect for persons who are “culturally embedded and derive their sense of identity and meaning from their cultures.”¹¹

Bifurcationist model (1) the “common” public values tend to represent the values of a certain, dominant group. (2) Discourse of public unity tends to outweigh discourse of private diversity¹²

Defends pluralist/multicultural model (1) “cherishes unity and diversity and privileges neither.”¹³public realm institutionalises and celebrates diversity.¹⁴

Critique of the millet model (1) freezes and isolates communities (2) ignores that individuals may belong to diverse communities.¹⁵

on post WW2 immigration “the consciousness of colour was imposed on the immigrants by white society for they did not define themselves in terms of it.”¹⁶ “Two interrelated factors were judged to stand in the way of good race relations, namely the number of immigrants and white society's discrimination against them...Successive governments therefore decided upon the interrelated and mutually legitimising policies of restricting black and Asian immigration and combating discrimination.”¹⁷

Issue of integration emerges in 1960s, beginning of discourse of multiculturalism. Note however, use of term “ethnic minorities” rather than “ethnic groups” as was the case in USA and Canada.¹⁸ Resistance of language by conservative commentators.¹⁹

conservatives preferred assimilationist model, liberals bifurcationist model.²⁰ both shared the consensus that the public realm was to be shaped by the dominant, white, culture.²¹

Explores the impact of the Rushdie affair on the debate including (1) the shift of many integrationists to assimilation (2) the emergence of the pluralist perspective (3) realisation of the need for minorities to become actors in the debate (4) issue that Britain also had a cultural problem.²²

1B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 1.

2B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 1–2.

3B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 2.

4B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 2.

5B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 2–3.

6B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 3.

7B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 4.

8B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 4.

9B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 5,

10B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 5–7.

11B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 7–8.

12B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 8–9.

13B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 9.

14B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 10.

15B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 11–12.

16B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 13–14.

17B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 14.

18B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 14–15.

19B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 15.

20B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 15..

21B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 17.

22B Parekh, “Integrating Minorities” in T Blackstone, B Parekh and P Sanders, Race Relations in Britain: a developing agenda, (London: Routledge, 1999) 1–21, 18–20.

Mason

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Points out that the concept of “ethnic difference” assumes a certain norm of Britishness. Adopting an assimilationist perspective, this then places the onus on the minorities for integration and blames them, at least in part, for existing inequalities.¹

“Race and ethnicity are modern concepts. They have their origins in the global expansion of European societies that gathered pace from the late fifteenth century onwards.” period of the emergence of modern science.²

in interacting with other human societies what most struck the Europeans, especially the English”were differences of physical appearances” especially “skin colour.”³

Military and technological advantage of Europeans concept of race appeared as part of the process of explaining the concept of “apparent European superiority.”⁴

with the lack of any scientific basis for race controversy over whether the term should be used in the social sciences, some believe that it should as people nonetheless act as if races exists, whilst others claim that the use of the term legitimises it. “Sociologically...race does not refer to categories of human beings...race is a social relationship in which structural positions, and social actions are ordered, justified, and explained...the social relationship race presumes the existence of racism.”⁵

“ethnicity is more of a matter of the processes in which boundaries are created and maintained between ethnic groups than it is of the internal content of the ethnic categories.”⁶ “Ethnicity is then situational...people have different ethnic identities in different situations.”⁷

points to the way in which for English people ethnicity is a characteristic of others. “English people are apt to consider themselves as individuals, while outsiders are seen as members of groups.”⁸

In Britain, term “ethnic minority” not applied to all minorities, and usually applied to those who are not “white”.⁹

“British population was the result of successive migrations from the earliest recorded history”¹⁰

points to the significance of Irish migration during the “Great Transformation” (Industrial Revolution).¹¹

decline in immigration in the period between the two wars “the deep recession experienced by Britain in common with much of the rest of the world meant that demand for labour was weak and the economic attractions of migration consequently limited.”¹²

1D Mason, Race and Ethnicity in Modern Britain, Second Edition, Oxford Modern Britain Series, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 2.

2D Mason, Race and Ethnicity in Modern Britain, Second Edition, Oxford Modern Britain Series, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 5.

3D Mason, Race and Ethnicity in Modern Britain, Second Edition, Oxford Modern Britain Series, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 5.

4D Mason, Race and Ethnicity in Modern Britain, Second Edition, Oxford Modern Britain Series, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 6.

5D Mason, Race and Ethnicity in Modern Britain, Second Edition, Oxford Modern Britain Series, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 7–8. quote page 8.

6D Mason, Race and Ethnicity in Modern Britain, Second Edition, Oxford Modern Britain Series, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 12.

7D Mason, Race and Ethnicity in Modern Britain, Second Edition, Oxford Modern Britain Series, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 13.

8D Mason, Race and Ethnicity in Modern Britain, Second Edition, Oxford Modern Britain Series, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 14.

9D Mason, Race and Ethnicity in Modern Britain, Second Edition, Oxford Modern Britain Series, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 15.

10D Mason, Race and Ethnicity in Modern Britain, Second Edition, Oxford Modern Britain Series, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 20.

11D Mason, Race and Ethnicity in Modern Britain, Second Edition, Oxford Modern Britain Series, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 20–21.

12D Mason, Race and Ethnicity in Modern Britain, Second Edition, Oxford Modern Britain Series, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 22.

Gillespie

M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994)

"the experience of migrant or diasporic people is central to contemporary societies." ¹(2)

"Social interaction and relations are no longer dependent on simultaneous spatial co-presence." ²(3)

change in our experience of time and space³ (3)

o

cites McGrew on contemporary culture:

universalisation v particularsation; homogenisation v differentiation; integration v fragmentation; centralisation v decentralisation; juxtaposition v syncretisation ⁴ (4)

o

all cultures seen as hybrid and syncretistic⁵ (4)

o

on the challenge for Southall youth "to achieve equality and recognition in British society without affronting their parental values." ⁶(5)

o

terms Asian and Black "have been re-invented in post-colonial societies, by diaspora intellectuals, to convey the sense of a shared culture encompassing deep differences." ⁷(6)

o

"ever more sophisticated international communication technologies and the products of transnational media corporations dissolve distance and suspend time, and in doing so create new and unpredictable forms of connection, identification and cultural affinity, but also dislocation and disjuncture between people, places and cultures." ⁸(7)

o

"Ethnicity presents itself both as a natural given, and as an accident of history and contingency...it is indispensable to our understanding of modern societies...it has the power to mobilize and destroy" ⁹(8)

term ethnic originally applied to outsiders¹⁰ (9)

"By this definition people are born into an ethnic group, tend to remain in it through the practices of endogamy and use cultural and physical markers" ¹¹(9)

"the dominant ethnic group often adopts the strategy of concealing its own ethnic status and attributing ethnicity only to 'others'" ¹²(10)

English ethnicity and British tradititonally attached to nationalism, imperialism, racism and the state ¹³(10)

cites Baudrillard's contention that consumer activities "play a large role in defining people's identities and consciousness than class." ¹⁴(13)

“Hall (1992) suggests three possible consequences of globalisation on cultural identities: erosion, strengthening and the emergence of new identities or 'new ethnicities' "¹⁵ (17)

"thus globalization may mean neither universal assimilation into one homogeneous culture, nor a universal search for roots and revival of singular identities, but a complex, highly uneven process of many-sided translation." ¹⁶(19)

"Translated, or hybrid and syncretic cultures,....may constitute a powerful creative force...can also encounter fierce, often violent, opposition where they are perceived as threatening fundamentalist projects of cultural 'purification'" ¹⁷(19)

refers to the process of deterritorialisation as referred to by Appadurai. Significance: (1) brings migrants into the lower class sectors of wealthy societies (2) critical attachment to home state politics (3) creation of 'invented homelands' through the media and experiences of touristic travel¹⁸ (20-21)

1M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994) 2.

2M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994) 3.

3M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994) 3.

4M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994) 4.

5M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994) 4.

6M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994) 5.

7M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994) 6.

8M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994) 7.

9M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994) 8.

10M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994) 9.

11M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994) 9.

12M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994) 10.

13M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994) 10.

14M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994), 13.

15M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994), 17

16M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994) 19.

17M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994) 19.

18M. Gillespie, Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change, (London: Routledge, 1994) 20–21.

Eastman and Latham

R. Tang 'Planting a Chinese Church in Hounslow: A Decade of Mission' in M. Eastman and S. Latham(eds.), The Urban Church: A Practitioner's Resource Book, (London: SPCK, 2004) 77–80.

points to the importance of support from local church and sending church¹

balance needed between reaching out to new people and building existing people is fundamental² (80)

"the issue of the long term future of the next generation Chinese (British born Chinese) who are English speaking must be addressed. "

recommends three stages: (1) worship with parents (2) English speaking youth congregation (3) integrate into local non-ethnic chuches³ (80)

W.H. Roberts 'The Multicultural Society, The Multicultural Church' in M. Eastman and S. Latham(eds.), The Urban Church: A Practitioner's Resource Book, (London: SPCK, 2004) 69–71

"sixty per cent of the population in some areas of Britain is comprised of individuals from minority ethnic backgrounds."⁴ (69)

"lurking beneath the surface of this growing multicultural phenomenon remain inequality and exclusion." ⁵(69)

"the overt absence of justice is symptomatic of an institutionally racist society. Direct racial discrimination continues to be experienced by a significant section of the black and minority population. The worst affected are Bangladeshis, Pakistanis and young Caribbean men."⁶ (69)

quoting JH Cone "if integration means accepting the white man's style, his values or his religion, than the minority culture must refuse." ⁷(71)

C. Marchant ' The Story of Urban Mission in the UK' in M. Eastman and S. Latham(eds.), The Urban Church: A Practitioner's Resource Book, (London: SPCK, 2004) 2–5

1960s--immigrants arriving in the UK to live amongst the White working class.

1970s and 1980s reverse missionary flow with the Asian Christian Fellowship and the Afro-Caribbean Evangelical Council⁸ (4)

"Now the GLO-bal loCAL era is with us comprising ethnic congregations from African and Asian nations"⁹ (5)

S. Latham 'The Importance of Being Church' in M. Eastman and S. Latham(eds.), The Urban Church: A Practitioner's Resource Book, (London: SPCK, 2004) 13–16.

"we cannot keep on depending parasitically in Britain on the reinforcements from immigration- which is the main reason why the London inner-city churches are still surviving."¹⁰ (15)

W. Abdelmassih ' Recent Arrivals' in M. Eastman and S. Latham(eds.), The Urban Church: A Practitioner's Resource Book, (London: SPCK, 2004), 92–95.

comments on the fact that many new arrivals tend to feel lonely and isolated. Important role for the church in advocacy. Need for involvement in racial justice ministry. ¹¹

1R. Tang 'Planting a Chinese Church in Hounslow: A Decade of Mission' in M. Eastman and S. Latham(eds.), The Urban Church: A Practitioner's Resource Book, (London: SPCK, 2004) 77–80.

2R. Tang 'Planting a Chinese Church in Hounslow: A Decade of Mission' in M. Eastman and S. Latham(eds.), The Urban Church: A Practitioner's Resource Book, (London: SPCK, 2004) 77–80, 80.

3R. Tang 'Planting a Chinese Church in Hounslow: A Decade of Mission' in M. Eastman and S. Latham(eds.), The Urban Church: A Practitioner's Resource Book, (London: SPCK, 2004) 77–80, 80.

4W.H. Roberts 'The Multicultural Society, The Multicultural Church' in M. Eastman and S. Latham(eds.), The Urban Church: A Practitioner's Resource Book, (London: SPCK, 2004) 69–71, 69.

5W.H. Roberts 'The Multicultural Society, The Multicultural Church' in M. Eastman and S. Latham(eds.), The Urban Church: A Practitioner's Resource Book, (London: SPCK, 2004) 69–71, 69.

6W.H. Roberts 'The Multicultural Society, The Multicultural Church' in M. Eastman and S. Latham(eds.), The Urban Church: A Practitioner's Resource Book, (London: SPCK, 2004) 69–71, 69.

7W.H. Roberts 'The Multicultural Society, The Multicultural Church' in M. Eastman and S. Latham(eds.), The Urban Church: A Practitioner's Resource Book, (London: SPCK, 2004) 69–71, 71.

8 C. Marchant ' The Story of Urban Mission in the UK' in M. Eastman and S. Latham(eds.), The Urban Church: A Practitioner's Resource Book, (London: SPCK, 2004) 2–5 , 4.

9 C. Marchant ' The Story of Urban Mission in the UK' in M. Eastman and S. Latham(eds.), The Urban Church: A Practitioner's Resource Book, (London: SPCK, 2004) 2–5 , 4.

10S. Latham 'The Importance of Being Church' in M. Eastman and S. Latham(eds.), The Urban Church: A Practitioner's Resource Book, (London: SPCK, 2004) 13–16, 15.

11W. Abdelmassih ' Recent Arrivals' in M. Eastman and S. Latham(eds.), The Urban Church: A Practitioner's Resource Book, (London: SPCK, 2004), 92–95.

Castles and Miller

1990s-- extreme-right mobilization and "supposed threats to national identity" brought these issues to the centre ofg the political stage.¹ (9)

"immigration complicates existing conflicts or divisions in societies with long-standing ethnic minorities."² (12)

tension and contradiction between seeking assimilation and allowing long-term cultural difference.³ (12-13)

"Immigration has often taken place at the same time as economic restructuring and major changes in political and social structures...people whose conditions of life are already changing in an unpredictable way often see the newcomers as the cause of insecurity. They fear that they are being 'swamped' by forces beyond their control...Migrations and minorities are seen as a danger to living standards, life styles and social cohesion..."⁴ (13

Racism as a threat not just to immigrants but also to democracy and social order.⁵ (13)

challenge of shaping social policies and structuring social services.⁶ (14)

nation state founded on the myth of cultural and political unity, threatened by the arrival of immigrants. resolution sought through rules governing citizenship and naturalisation.⁷ (14)

"migrants intentions at the time of departure are poor predictors of actual behaviour."⁸ (18)

sets the behaviour of the migrant beyond the individual dimension in the context of social changes in country of origin and country to which will migrate ⁹(18)

Ravenstein, push and pull theories, generally quite individualistic and ahistorical¹⁰ (19-20)

crititicised for being simplistic and unable to explain "actual movements or predicting future ones." ¹¹(20-21)

do not explain

(1) why it is not the poorest who migrate, but those of an intermediate state.

(2) why migration is often towards densely populated areas not away from them.

(3) why migrants choose to go to some areas and not others. ¹²(21)

1S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993)9.

2S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 12.

3S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 12–13,

4S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 13.

5S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 13.

6S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 14.

7S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 14.

8S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 18.

9S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 18.

10S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 19–20.

11S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 20–21.

12S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 21.

Castles and Miller

existence of prior links between sending and receiving countries based on colonisation, political influence, trade investment or cultural ties."¹ (21)

"the state almost invariably plays a major role in initiating, shaping and controlling movements."² (21-2

migration systems approach: macro-structures--> large scale institutional factors; micro-structures--->networks, practices and beliefs of the migrants³ (22)

macro structures: political economy of the world market, relationships between states, policies and practices of sending and receiving countries ⁴(23)

four stage migratory process

(1) temporary labour migration

(2) prolonging of stay and establishment of labour networks

(3) family reunion

(4) permanent settlement⁵ (25)

model less appropriate for refugee movements or short term migration of highly skilled personnel⁶ (25)

"Critics of immigration portray ethnic minorities as a threat to economic well-being, public order and national identity. Yet these ethnic minorities may in fact be the creation of the very people who fear them."⁷ (26)

"An ethnic minority is therefore a product of both 'other-definition' and of self-definition."⁸ (27)

"whether ethnicity is 'primordial', 'situational' or 'instrumental' need not concern us further here. The point is that ethnicity leads to identification with a specific group, but its visible markers- phenotype, language, culture, customs, religion, behaviour,- may also be used as criteria for exclusion by other groups." ⁹(29)

"Racism means making (and acting upon) predictions about people's character, abilities or behaviour on the basis of socially constructed markers of difference." ¹⁰(30)

Structural racism--> developing structures that exclude or discriminate; Informal racism--> behaviour by members of the dominant group¹¹ (30)

increase in racism linked to decline in optimism and the fact that world economic restructuring has occurred at the same time as the arrival of ethnic minorities.¹² (30-31)

1S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 21.

2S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 21–22.

3S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 22

4S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 23.

5S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 25.

6S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 25.

7S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 26.

8S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 27.

9S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 29.

10S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 30.

11S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 30.

12S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 30–31.