Datta remittances

Refers to a “remittance euphoria” in neo-liberal circles seeing remittances as a new form of funding development.1 Equally among “International Financial Institutions” e.g. World Bank, IMF,2
Official remittances increased from $31.2 billion in 1990 to $ 167 billion in 2005.3
claim that the cost of remittance upon migrants is under-researched.4
migration policy driven by security rather than development concerns.5
Points to how “managed migration” leads to a stratification of migration. In encouraging migration of highly-skilled/skilled migrants (arguably from the more affluent sectors of the Global South) and restricting low-skilled migration, especially under the points regime, the role of remittances becomes increasingly restricted.6
on average migrants send 20-30% of their income back in remittances. Refers to some Brazilians remitting up to 65%7
Most remittances are “altruistic” sent for the subsistence/health/education of family members in home country.8
Many Brazilians have migrated to the UK with the objective of saving enough money to set up a business in Brazil.9 Many Brazilians also involved in paying off debts, either previous debts, or debts incurred to migrate.10
Remittances generated by working long hours in poorly paid jobs.11 payment by hour means loss of pay if absent due to emergencies.12
process of de-skilling linked with complaints of maltreatment by employers.13 undocumented migrants unable to defend their rights before employers.14
A8 acession causes tension with workers from other countries with whom they compete. Gap between Eastern European workers and those from the Global South.15
difficulty of pressure to remit. Many migrants underestimated the cost of living in the UK when choosing to migrate.16 Coping strategies (1) sharing accomodation (2) multiple jobs (3) minimising consumption (even of essentials such as food; or taking the bus/walking instead of tube)17
loneliness (often compensated through regular phone calls) and shame of jobs carried out in UK.18 sensation of being part of an “underclass” (especially undocumented migrants)19






1K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 1.
2K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 3.
3K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 3.
4K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 8.
5K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 9.
6K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 10–12.
7K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf, 14.
8K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 14–17.
9K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 18.
10K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 18–19.
11K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 21.
12K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 22.
13K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 22.
14K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 23.
15K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 23–24.
16K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 25.
17K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 25–26.
18K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 26–27.
19K Datta, C Mcllwaine, Y Evans, J Herbert, J May & J Willis, Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-Paid Migrant Workers in London, (London: Queen Mary University of London, 2006) available online at www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/remittances.pdf , 28.

CCME

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“I should like to underline that in our view the phenomenon of illegal residence might be significantly

reduced by:

1. clear, accessible and open procedures for legal labour migration into the EU, as

well as a coherent and open information policy on these procedures

2. an improved efficiency and quality of asylum procedures, and an asylum policy which would make it possible to reach the territory of the Union in a legal way and launch a claim for asylum”¹

one of the problems with many voluntary return programmes is the lack of preparation that the migrant has to return.²

““Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.”4 Of course, this right does not mention a right to immigrate in any country; however, it does effectively prevent governments from introducing extreme emigration controls if they are not to be accused of human rights violations”.3 4 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Art. 13.2³

“Some research also proves that low-skilled (and perhaps irregular) migrants send back higher amounts of remittances than highly skilled experts.”⁴

1F Leinemann & D Peschke, “Contribution to the European Commission Hearing on a Community Return Policy on Illegal Residents, Brussels 16 July 2002-10-17,” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 2.

2F Leinemann & D Peschke, “Contribution to the European Commission Hearing on a Community Return Policy on Illegal Residents, Brussels 16 July 2002-10-17,” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 3.

3F Leinemann & D Peschke, “Contribution to the European Commission Hearing on a Community Return Policy on Illegal Residents, Brussels 16 July 2002-10-17,” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 4.

4F Leinemann & D Peschke, “Contribution to the European Commission Hearing on a Community Return Policy on Illegal Residents, Brussels 16 July 2002-10-17,” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 4.

CCME

“A report published in 2004 by the UK House of Commons² clearly shows that the costs of migration are outweighed by the economic benefit migration brings. Therefore the Commission’s initiative is a good starting point for a shift of paradigm in the political debate. Migration should no longer be regarded as an indication of crisis and deficit but as a chance and resource for the countries of origin as well as for the hosting societies.”¹

“people migrating for reasons of labour, usually as a main priority, seek thereby to improve their own life and the lives of their families ... come with individual hopes, challenges and skills, interests, and inalienable human rights...Migration can be a source of income and the unofficial social security system for the families of migrants. Moreover, migration contributes to increased knowledge and in some cases improves the economic standing of a country. In other cases it might completely deprive the country of its most needed skilled or highly skilled labour.”²

Links migration to the unequal impact of globalization.³

“The point to be taken from this is that migration in the modern world, in both its forced and ‘voluntary’ versions, has to be understood as arising for many people as an act of necessary adaptation to developments beyond their individual control. In many instances, people migrate in order to ensure their basic survival; in others, because the task of living with a degree of dignity and the hope for a marginally better future requires movement to another country.”⁴

points to the fact that actions designed to combat terrorism affect the issue of remittances.⁵

“approaches the issue of migration as one of “service providers”. This logic in our view raises strong concerns about a perspective, which exclusively sees migrants as a workforce, but hardly as human beings with hopes, plans, dreams and, foremost: rights.”⁶

points to the disaster of the guest worker system in the 1970s and claims that immigration policy needs to take into consideration that whether people stay or return often has little link to their initial intentions.⁷

1Churches’ Commission for Migrants in Europe “Comments on the Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions “Migration and Development: Some concrete orientations” COM (2005) 390 final Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 2.

2Churches’ Commission for Migrants in Europe “Comments on the Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions “Migration and Development: Some concrete orientations” COM (2005) 390 final Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 2.

3Churches’ Commission for Migrants in Europe “Comments on the Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions “Migration and Development: Some concrete orientations” COM (2005) 390 final Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 2.

4Churches’ Commission for Migrants in Europe “Comments on the Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions “Migration and Development: Some concrete orientations” COM (2005) 390 final Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 3.

5Churches’ Commission for Migrants in Europe “Comments on the Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions “Migration and Development: Some concrete orientations” COM (2005) 390 final Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 4.

6Churches’ Commission for Migrants in Europe “Comments on the Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions “Migration and Development: Some concrete orientations” COM (2005) 390 final Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 6.

7Churches’ Commission for Migrants in Europe “Comments on the Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions “Migration and Development: Some concrete orientations” COM (2005) 390 final Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 7.

houston et al;

T Houston, R Thomson, RGidoomal and L Chinn, The New People Next Door, Lausanne Occasional Paper No. 55, (Lausanne Committee for World Evangelisation, 2004) available online at www.lausanne.org

“The word ‘Diaspora’ meaning ‘a scattering’ is used to describe this large-scale movement of people from their homeland to settle permanently or temporarily in other countries.”¹

factors that will fuel the increase in migration: economic inequality; the quest for education and economic opportunity; escape from political and social oppression demand for skilled workers; aging populations in the developed world, in need of personal care and pension support; religious persecution; inter-tribal conflict; students used to receive scholarships, but are now more likely to be funded from families; urbanization; population growth.²

“Change can be painful and the changes brought by the movement of peoples are no exception. While the outcomes may be creative, the process can be long and hard for everybody involved. There is no agreement on how diverse societies should live together. Different models are debated. The American ideal of society was the Melting Pot where everything is assimilated in the whole. For some that has been replaced by the Salad Bowl ideal in which each part contributes to the whole whilst maintaining its distinctive form and flavor. Some prioritize Integration while others emphasize Multiculturalism. Many want Contact but fear Assimilation, while others desire total Separation. Whatever form the interaction may take, the result will still inevitably be change and the changes have to be coped with.”³

Diaspora people vessels of cultural extension and economic support.⁴

“Many of us are caught in a cycle of kneeling before the toilet to clean it and kneeling in prayer for strength to do the same.”⁵

claims that the NHS would collapse without diaspora workers.⁶

opportunity to shape leaders from across the world.⁷

potential contributions of diaspora Christian communities 1) welfare of new society 2) reach out to fellow diaspora 3) reach out to other diaspora communities 4) reach out to marginalized people 5)mission bases 6) revitalize Christian community in host country⁸

Considerations for host Christian communities: 1) avoid patronizing 2) avoid racism 3) avoid fear.⁹

Consideration for diaspora communities 1) lack of resources and leaders 2) a minority within a minority 3) inward looking, ghetto mentality.¹⁰

“In the Christian world, Chinese Diaspora Christians have created a world-wide network for evangelism, as have the Filipino Diaspora Christians (See Chapter 7). The Association of Christian Ministries to Internationals (ACMI) was established in 1981 as a US/Canadian fellowship of international student ministry staff and volunteers to enhance networking, cross training and cooperation in North America and globally. It is recommended that all Diaspora groups learn from their experiences and explore networking in this way.”¹¹

presents as options for outreach among diaspora 1) churches emerging as homogeneous units within the diaspora 2) established diaspora churches plant new ones for their fellow nationals 3) different ethnic churches work together to plant churches for new ethnic group 4) international church 5) multiethnic churches¹²

1T Houston, R Thomson, RGidoomal and L Chinn, The New People Next Door, Lausanne Occasional Paper No. 55, (Lausanne Committee for World Evangelisation, 2004) available online at www.lausanne.org, 7.

2T Houston, R Thomson, RGidoomal and L Chinn, The New People Next Door, Lausanne Occasional Paper No. 55, (Lausanne Committee for World Evangelisation, 2004) available online at www.lausanne.org, 8–9.

3T Houston, R Thomson, RGidoomal and L Chinn, The New People Next Door, Lausanne Occasional Paper No. 55, (Lausanne Committee for World Evangelisation, 2004) available online at www.lausanne.org, 13.

4T Houston, R Thomson, RGidoomal and L Chinn, The New People Next Door, Lausanne Occasional Paper No. 55, (Lausanne Committee for World Evangelisation, 2004) available online at www.lausanne.org, 14.

5C Taguba quoted in T Houston, R Thomson, RGidoomal and L Chinn, The New People Next Door, Lausanne Occasional Paper No. 55, (Lausanne Committee for World Evangelisation, 2004) available online at www.lausanne.org, 14.

6T Houston, R Thomson, RGidoomal and L Chinn, The New People Next Door, Lausanne Occasional Paper No. 55, (Lausanne Committee for World Evangelisation, 2004) available online at www.lausanne.org, 15.

7T Houston, R Thomson, RGidoomal and L Chinn, The New People Next Door, Lausanne Occasional Paper No. 55, (Lausanne Committee for World Evangelisation, 2004) available online at www.lausanne.org, 18.

8T Houston, R Thomson, RGidoomal and L Chinn, The New People Next Door, Lausanne Occasional Paper No. 55, (Lausanne Committee for World Evangelisation, 2004) available online at www.lausanne.org, 19.

9T Houston, R Thomson, RGidoomal and L Chinn, The New People Next Door, Lausanne Occasional Paper No. 55, (Lausanne Committee for World Evangelisation, 2004) available online at www.lausanne.org, 20.

10T Houston, R Thomson, RGidoomal and L Chinn, The New People Next Door, Lausanne Occasional Paper No. 55, (Lausanne Committee for World Evangelisation, 2004) available online at www.lausanne.org, 20.

11T Houston, R Thomson, RGidoomal and L Chinn, The New People Next Door, Lausanne Occasional Paper No. 55, (Lausanne Committee for World Evangelisation, 2004) available online at www.lausanne.org, 25.

12T Houston, R Thomson, RGidoomal and L Chinn, The New People Next Door, Lausanne Occasional Paper No. 55, (Lausanne Committee for World Evangelisation, 2004) available online at www.lausanne.org, 26.

heike

Heike Vierling-Ihrig, “Churches and Christian Organisations in Europe on Migration and Asylum” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008]

Family rights should not apply only to citizens but all residents.¹

issue of the right to form a family.²

criticism of the long period time before family re-unification is solved.³

claims that to deny a welcome to migrants is to betray Europe's historical roots.⁴

“We wish to recall that European colonialism – as an important part of its history – can be seen as a root cause of still existing economic, political and cultural domination in various areas throughout the world. For centuries, Europeans have migrated to all parts of the globe, often without any ambition to integrate into existing societies. We recall this history, because it is against this background that many people from other regions in the world meet Europeans. It is important to be aware of this history also when we talk about integration of foreigners into our European societies.”⁵

xenophobia and rascism seen to rise with fears concerning security.⁶]

need for cooperation with countries of origin; fear of loss of residence status if country of origin is visited; issue of pensions.⁷

“A European Union that promotes the freedom of movement and residence inside its borders as one of its guiding principles should not appear as a fortress to the outside world.”⁸

“the “Gastarbeiter” idea of migrants who leave the society after "they have done their job" has proved an illusion. Furthermore, it has been detrimental to integration. Public affirmation – by some politicians – that migrants will only stay for a certain period of time will not lead to the shift in public opinion which is bitterly needed.”⁹

refers to carrier liability as a privatisation of immigration controls.¹⁰

points to tighter border as leading to greater profit for traffickers and greater danger for migrants, thousands of whom have died.¹¹

“more sophisticated control at the EU’s external borders in fact trigger more sophisticated ways of irregular entries, resulting in more trafficking and smuggling and, more importantly, greater risk for persons in need of international protection.”¹²

points to the problem of those having visas being denied entry.¹³

“Many countries of origin make a large profit from the fact that their citizens work abroad and send money home in order to assure the survival of their families and relatives.”¹⁴

1H Vierling-Ihrig, “Churches and Christian Organisations in Europe on Migration and Asylum” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 30

2Heike Vierling-Ihrig, “Churches and Christian Organisations in Europe on Migration and Asylum” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 33

3Heike Vierling-Ihrig, “Churches and Christian Organisations in Europe on Migration and Asylum” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 36

4Heike Vierling-Ihrig, “Churches and Christian Organisations in Europe on Migration and Asylum” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 39

5Heike Vierling-Ihrig, “Churches and Christian Organisations in Europe on Migration and Asylum” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 39

6Heike Vierling-Ihrig, “Churches and Christian Organisations in Europe on Migration and Asylum” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 39

7H Vierling-Ihrig, “Churches and Christian Organisations in Europe on Migration and Asylum” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 40–41.

8H Vierling-Ihrig, “Churches and Christian Organisations in Europe on Migration and Asylum” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 44

9H Vierling-Ihrig, “Churches and Christian Organisations in Europe on Migration and Asylum” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 45

10H Vierling-Ihrig, “Churches and Christian Organisations in Europe on Migration and Asylum” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 141.

11H Vierling-Ihrig, “Churches and Christian Organisations in Europe on Migration and Asylum” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 141.

12H Vierling-Ihrig, “Churches and Christian Organisations in Europe on Migration and Asylum” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 154.

13H Vierling-Ihrig, “Churches and Christian Organisations in Europe on Migration and Asylum” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 161.

14H Vierling-Ihrig, “Churches and Christian Organisations in Europe on Migration and Asylum” Churches Commission for Migrants in Europe Homepage available online at www.ccme.be [Accessed September 10 2008] 165.

Castles and Miller

"The question is whether democratic states can in the long run successfully operate with a population differentiated into full citizens, quasi-citizens and foreigners."¹ (40)

believe that the nature of citizenship will change and the link to one nation state become more tenuous² (40)

o

"these rapid changes in global economic and political relationships have had dramatic effects in Africa, Asia and Latin America...many countries are marked by rapid population growth, overuse and destruction of natural resources, uncontrolled urbanization, political instability, falling living standards, poverty and even famine."³ (77-78)

o

"Much migration of qualified personnel is from less-developed to highly-developed countries...The "brain drain" can represent a serious loss of skilled personnel and training resources for the poorer countries. On the other hand, many of the migrants were unable to find work in their home countries. Their remittances may be seen as a benefit, and many return eventually with additional training and experience, which can facilitate technology transfer." ⁴(88)

o

"Illegal migration is, by definition, a product of the laws made to control migration."⁵ (90)

"Official views on illegal immigration changed dramatically as economic conditions worsened, unemployment increased and anti-immigrant political movements began to attract support." ⁶(91)

"growing agreement that entry restrictions could have only limited success."⁷ (93)

International cooperation to abate migration to Europe: (1) trade liberalization (2) direct investment (3) foreign aid ⁸(95-96)

o

"probably the single most important factor behind the rise in emigration from the Latin American and Caribbean countries has been the declining level of economic performance."⁹ (151)

o

OECD conference on Migration. (1986)..reasons for increasing alien employment:

"the ageing of Western Societies, demographic imbalances between developed and developing regions in close proximity to each other, the North-South gap, continuing employer demand for foreign labour and the growth of illegal migration."¹⁰ (169)

"many of the exploding cities of Asia and Latin America become way stations on the road to urban centres in industrial democracies."¹¹ (172)

1S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 40.

2S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 40.

3S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 77–78.

4S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 88.

5S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 90.

6S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 91.

7S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 93.

8S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 95–96.

9S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 151.

10S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 169.

11S. Castles & M. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (London: Macmillan, 1993) 172.